Exodus 21

The chapter moves from the inner household (servants) to public crimes, then to social/civil injuries, demonstrating that divine justice governs every sphere of national and private existence.

• The master must set the Hebrew servant free in the seventh year (v. 2).
• One who smites another to death must be put to death (v. 12).
• The owner of a known dangerous ox must keep it in or be liable for death (v. 29).
• One who digs a pit must cover it to prevent animal injury (v. 33).

• If a master fails to provide the basic requirements for a betrothed female servant, she must go free without cost (v. 11).
• Anyone who kidnaps or sells a man shall be put to death (v. 16).
• Anyone who curses their parents shall be put to death (v. 17).

• These laws correspond to the 'Book of the Covenant' (Exodus 20:22–23:33).
• Ancient Near Eastern legal collections, such as the Code of Hammurabi, share similarities in form (casuistic law). However, Mosaic Law is distinguished by its elevation of human life over property, whereas other codes often prioritized property or social status.

• Servitude (עֶבֶד [H5650]) in ancient Israel was largely debt-based or poverty-based, distinct from the chattel slavery of later centuries. It functioned as a social safety net, allowing individuals to pay off debts through labor.
• The 'ear-piercing' (v. 6) signified a public, permanent commitment of loyalty to a master, which in the ancient context was a sign of devotion rather than mere legal bondage.

• This section directly follows the revelation of the Ten Commandments at Sinai, functioning as the 'Torah' (instruction) for how those Commandments look in practice.

• Matthew Henry observes that these laws, while distinct from modern customs, serve as an emblem of humanity's bondage to sin and Christ's provision of true liberty; historically, this typological reading (seeing Christ as the ultimate Redeemer who frees the slave) is common in Reformed circles, whereas others emphasize the literal civil application for the ancient state of Israel.
• New Testament authors draw upon these principles of equity (Ephesians 6:9, masters treating servants fairly) rather than re-enacting the civil code as binding on modern nations.

• The laws of retribution (vv. 23-25) are cited by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:38) to contrast external legal compliance with internal heart transformation.

• מִשְׁפָּט [H4941] (mishpat): Used in verse 1, it implies not just 'judgments' but 'verdicts' or 'judicial decrees' based on justice.
• עֶבֶד [H5650] (ebed): Translated 'servant' or 'slave'. The Hebrew carries a broad range of meaning from a hired laborer to a bond-servant.
• Lex Talionis: While not a direct Hebrew word, the concept described in vv. 23-25 (punishment proportional to the crime) is the fundamental principle of Old Testament justice.

• The surprisingly high status and protection given to women and servants compared to other contemporary ancient codes.
• The distinction between a fatal accident (no penalty for the owner in some cases) and negligence (capital punishment for the owner if they knew of the danger).

• There is ongoing scholarly debate regarding the extent of the term 'forever' (עוֹלָם [H5769]) in verse 6; some posit it meant 'for life', while others suggest 'until the Year of Jubilee', when all Hebrew servants were released regardless of prior status.